MARKETING. The average consumer would probably define marketing as a combination of advertising and selling. It actually includes a good deal more. Modern marketing is most simply defined as directing the flow of goods from producers to customers. It encompasses, however, a broad range of activities including product planning, new-product development, organizing the channels by which the product reaches the customer, the actual distribution of products, wholesaling, price setting, advertising and promotion, public relations, product warranties, retailing, financing, and more. 

Production Versus Marketing

   There was a time, not many decades ago, when marketing was an incidental concern for businesses. The main emphasis was on production. Goods were produced and made available for customers to buy, with a minimum concern for what customers might want. What was on the market at any one time was determined by production managers. 

   Most businesses now are dominated by an orientation toward marketing, not toward production. This means that firms begin by anticipating what consumers want. They then plan their products accordingly. What is produced is guided by marketing decisions, and marketing managers have more to say about company decisions than production managers. It is estimated that at least half of the cost a consumer pays for a product is accounted for by marketing expenditures. 

Micromarketing and Macromarketing

   Within the field of economics, two types of marketing have been defined: micromarketing and macromarketing. Micromarketing describes the activities of individual firms, beginning with originating and producing products and ending when the products reach the final user, the customer. Macromarketing, by contrast, describes how the whole system of production and distribution works in a society. The emphasis in this article is on the chief aspects of micromarketing beginning with product development and continuing through retailing. 

   Virtually all economies need marketing functions. Even planned economies need to be concerned about directing goods and services to their populations. Nor is marketing confined to profit-making companies or to businesses that manufacture products. Doctors, lawyers, hospitals, colleges, museums, and other service enterprises also engage in marketing. This is especially true in market economies like the United States in which there is open competition for a customer's attention. (See also Economics, "Management of Economies.") 

Markets, Products, and Customers

   In the simplest terms, a market is the place where seller meets buyer to exchange products for money. ("Products" include services as well as goods.) Traditional markets still function in many parts of the world. Even in the United States, during summer months, there are farmers' markets where direct selling and buying take place between producers and consumers. Most service industries still operate at this market level. 

   Manufacturing industries and most agricultural enterprises are more remote from the consumer. Their products pass through several hands--truckers, warehouse workers, wholesalers, and retailers--before reaching the final consumer. 

   Products, or commodities, are usually divided into two types: consumer and industrial. (Manufacturers are consumers as well as makers of products.) Consumer goods are those that are sold to final users, the customers. These goods include food, clothing, automobiles, television sets, appliances, and all those things people go to stores to purchase. 

   Industrial goods are those that are sold to companies or other businesses for use in manufacturing or other purposes. Automobile makers buy many of the parts used to assemble cars. A tire manufacturer buys rubber, synthetic or otherwise, with which to make tires. Eventually these materials will end up in the hands of final users--the owners of the cars. The nature of industrial goods depends on the nature of the goods to be made for final users. The price of industrial goods and raw materials will influence the price of final goods, those that the consumer buys. 

   Agricultural and manufacturing enterprises are also final customers of some goods. Farmers buy seed, fertilizer, machinery, pesticides, animal feed, and other goods. Factories need machinery, fire protection, meal services, computers, paper and other office supplies, heating and air conditioning, janitorial services, and other goods to keep operating. Service industries also are final customers for many goods. Doctors and dentists need offices, medicines, and equipment. Insurance companies need desks and chairs, adding machines, and computers. 

Marketing Research  

   Marshall Field's, a department store in Chicago, has long used the motto: "Give the lady what she wants." Finding out what the customer wants is one of the problems marketing research tries to solve. Marketing research has been defined as trying to analyze marketing problems scientifically. It studies people as buyers and sellers, examining their habits, attitudes, preferences, dislikes, and purchasing power. It often studies specific segments of a population, such as teenagers, high-income groups, or senior citizens. Marketing research also investigates distribution systems, pricing, promotion, product design, packaging, brand names, and almost every aspect of the seller-buyer relationship. 

   Marketing research is divided into a number of subareas. Advertising research attempts to find out the effectiveness of advertising. It also seeks to learn the best media for advertising specific products: television, newspapers, radio, magazines, billboards, and others. Market analysis tries to identify and measure markets for specific products and to estimate sales potential. Markets may be differentiated by population groups or by geography. Some types of clothing are more likely to sell in Florida and California than in the northern Midwest. Some cosmetics will appeal more to black customers than to white customers. Performance analysis helps a company learn how well it is meeting its goals of sales and profits. Product research covers the whole area of new-product development. Marketing research is an expensive undertaking, and its costs are built into the prices of products. 

Product Development  

   Akio Morita, the chairman of Sony Corporation in Japan, wanted a radio he could carry with him and listen to wherever he went. From that small desire was born the Sony Walkman, a radio small enough to be worn on a belt or carried in a pocket. With a headset smaller than earmuffs, the Walkman can be worn and listened to anywhere. 

   Not all product development is so easy. Most of today's products (including many of the basic necessities of food, clothing, and shelter) are the result of creative research and thinking by staffs of people. A new product is one that is new for the company that makes it. A hamburger is not new, but when McDonald's introduced the Big Mac, it was a new product for that company. 

   Decisions to make a new product may be the result of technology and scientific discovery. The discovery can be accidental or sought for. The original punch-card data-processing machine was devised for use by the Bureau of the Census. Penicillin, by contrast, was an accidental discovery and is now one of the most useful antibiotics. Products today are often the result of extensive marketing research to learn what consumers and retailers want. Ideas for products may come from consumers, salespeople, engineers, competitors, trade associations, advertising agencies, or any number of other sources.  

   Once a product has been approved, it must be designed, made, tested, revised, and retested. It may be subject to test marketing (sold or given away in a few places) before being put on the market generally. This whole process may take several years. 

   Package design and brand-name selection are two major aspects of product planning. Packaging not only contains and protects a product, but also provides a form of advertising intended to appeal to consumers by its appearance or convenience. Carbonated beverages could be sold in colorless glass jugs, but they are far more appealing and convenient in colorful six-packs of aluminum cans. Packaging also can add significantly to the cost of a product. 

   The packaging of many products is regulated by governments. In the United States the Federal Fair Packaging and Labeling Act of 1966 requires certain information to be placed on cartons, boxes, and other packaging for products used by consumers. Nutrition information, for instance, is required on cereal boxes. Most packaging today carries a universal product code stamped on it. The code can be read by electronic scanners to speed up the buying process and to automate inventory control. 

   Nearly every product carries a brand name, often used in conjunction with a company symbol, to identify it for consumers and to aid in advertising. The goal of a company is to build brand loyalty in consumers and to enhance its reputation. 

   There are two major types of brand names: manufacturer brands and dealer brands. The manufacturer brand is given by the maker of the product, such as Ford Escort automobiles or Gillette Trac-II razor blades. A dealer brand may be given by a middleman or a retail store. Sears, Roebuck and Company, for example, has given the brand name Kenmore to its appliances, though they are not manufactured by Sears. Grocery chains often give brand names to items specially packaged for them. Brand names, like trademarks, can be protected by law (see Trademark). 

Classes of Consumer Products

   The traditional distinction between products that satisfy needs and those that satisfy wants is no longer adequate to describe classes of products. In today's prosperous societies the distinction has become blurred because so many wants have been turned into needs. A writer, for instance, can work with paper and pencils. These are legitimate needs for the task. But the work can be done more quickly and efficiently with a word processor. Thus a computer is soon viewed as a need rather than a want. 

   In the field of marketing, consumer goods are classed according to the way in which they are purchased. The two main categories are convenience goods and shopping goods. Two lesser types are specialty goods and unsought goods. It must be emphasized that all of these types are based on the way shoppers think about products, not on the nature of the products themselves. What is regarded as a convenience item in France (wine, for example) may be a specialty good in the United States. 

   People do not spend a great deal of time shopping for such convenience items as groceries, newspapers, toothpaste, razor blades, aspirin, and candy. The buying of convenience goods may be done routinely, as some families buy groceries once a week. Such regularly purchased items are called staples. Sometimes convenience products are bought on impulse: someone has a sudden desire for an ice cream sundae on a hot day. Or they may be purchased as emergency items: the car battery dies just as the family is about to leave for vacation; to avoid delay, a new battery must be bought and installed. 

   Shopping goods are items for which customers search. They compare prices, quality, and styles, and may visit a number of stores before making a decision. Buying an automobile is often done this way. 

   Shopping goods fall into two classes: those that are perceived as basically the same and those that are regarded as different. Items that are looked upon as basically the same include such things as home appliances, television sets, and automobiles. Having decided on the model desired, the customer is primarily interested in getting the item at the most favorable price. Items regarded as inherently different include clothing, furniture, and dishes. Quality, style, and fashion will either take precedence over price, or they will not matter at all. 

   Specialty goods have characteristics that impel customers to make special efforts to find them. Price may be no consideration at all. Specialty goods can include almost any kind of product--particular types of unusual food; an expensive imported car; an item from a well-known store, such as Gucci or Tiffany; or a dinner at a new restaurant. Normally, specialty goods have a brand name or other distinguishing characteristic. 

   Unsought goods are items a consumer does not necessarily want or need or may not even know about. Promotion or advertising brings such goods to the consumer's attention. The product could be something new on the market--as the Sony Walkman once was--or it may be a fairly standard service, such as life insurance, for which most people will usually not bother shopping. 

Market Segmentation

   When Henry Ford was manufacturing automobiles, he wanted to sell them to everyone. This is called mass marketing. Rock videos, on the other hand, are directed primarily at a youth market. This is called target marketing. It is very common for manufacturers and sellers to produce goods for specific segments of a population. Makers of soaps and detergents direct their products at a mass market, while sellers of caviar aim for a select clientele: those who can afford their expensive product. A mass market is by definition very large. Target markets, however, need not be small. The teenage market in the United States, Western Europe, and Japan is quite large. The senior-citizen market is constantly increasing. Target marketing involves developing the right product for the segment of the population to be reached. Marketing research is used to identify specific target populations and their buying potential. 

   One of the advantages of target marketing is the possibility of becoming the leader in a specific market segment. This is often done by making products that are distinctive within their category. Coleco Industries was extremely successful with its Cabbage Patch Kids in a competitive and crowded doll market. 

Setting Prices

   Every product on the market has a variety of costs built into it before it is ever put up for sale to a customer. There are costs of production, transportation, storage, advertising, and more. Each of these costs must bring in some profit at each stage: truckers must profit from transporting products, or they would not be in business. Thus, costs also include several layers of profits. The selling price of a product must take all of these costs (and built-in profits) into consideration. The selling price itself consists of a markup over the total of all costs, and it is normally based on a percentage of the total cost. 

   The markup may be quite high--90 percent of cost--or it may be low. Grocery items in a supermarket usually have a low markup, while mink coats have a very high one. High markups, however, do not in themselves guarantee big profits. Profits come from turnover. If an item has a 50 percent markup and does not sell, there is no profit. But if a cereal has an 8 percent markup and sells very well, there are reasonable profits. 

   Some pricing is done by producers. Automobile manufacturers set the prices for which they want their cars to sell. Prices may also be set by wholesalers or retailers. Supply and demand also affect prices. 

   While most pricing is based on cost factors, there are some exceptions. Prestige pricing means setting prices artificially high in order to attract a select clientele. Such pricing attempts to suggest that the quality or style of the product is exceptional or that the item cannot be found elsewhere. Stores along Rodeo Drive in Beverly Hills, Calif., Fifth Avenue in New York City, the Rue St-Honore in Paris, and the Via Condotti in Rome use prestige pricing to attract wealthy shoppers. 

   Leader pricing and bait pricing are the opposites of prestige pricing. Leader pricing means setting low prices on certain items to get people to come into the stores. The products so priced are called loss leaders because little or no profit can be made on them. The profits are made from other products people buy while in the store. 

   Bait pricing, now generally considered illegal, means setting artificially low prices to attract customers. The store, however, has no intention of selling goods at the bait prices. The point is to get people into the store and persuade them of the inferiority of the low-priced item. Then a higher-priced item is presented as a better alternative. 

   A common retail tactic is odd-even pricing. If, for example, a television set would ordinarily be priced at $300, the store will set the price at $295 or $299.95 to give the appearance of a lower price. Automobiles and other high-priced products are usually priced in this manner. For some reason $7,995 has more appeal to a potential car customer than $8,000. 

   Bid pricing is a special kind of price setting. It is often used in the awarding of government contracts. Several companies are asked to submit bids on a job, and normally the lowest bidder wins. A school system may want to buy a large number of computers. Several companies are asked to submit prices, and the school district will decide on the best bid--based as well on considerations of quality and service. 

Product Distribution

   The physical distribution of products has two primary aspects: transportation and storage. Both aspects are highly developed and specialized phases of marketing. The costs of both transporting and storing are built into the prices of products. Transportation can be by truck, railway, ship, or barge. For some items, such as exotic plants and flowers, or when rapid delivery is essential, air freight may be used. 

   Storage, or warehousing, is a necessary function because production and consumption of goods rarely match: items generally are not sold as quickly as they are made. Inventories build up, both in warehouses and at retail establishments, before the goods are sold. The transportation function is involved in bringing goods to a warehouse and taking them from it to retail stores. 

   Storage performs the service of stabilizing market prices. If, for example, no agricultural produce could be stored, all food would have to be put on the market immediately. This would, of course, create a glut and lower prices drastically. There would be an immediate benefit to consumers, but in the long run they would suffer. Farmers, because of low prices, would be forced off the land, and the amount of food produced would decrease. This, in turn, would raise consumer prices. 

   Warehouses for storage are of several types. Private warehouses are owned by manufacturers. Public warehouses, in spite of their name, are privately owned facilities, but they are independent of manufacturer ownership. General-merchandise warehouses store a great variety of products. Cold-storage warehouses store perishable goods, especially food products. Grain elevators are a kind of warehouse used to keep wheat and other grains from spoiling. A bonded warehouse is one that stores goods, frequently imported, on which taxes must be paid before they are sold. Cigarettes and alcoholic beverages are common examples. 

   The distribution center is a more recently developed kind of warehouse. Many large companies have several manufacturing plants, sometimes located outside the country. Each plant does not make every company product but specializes in one or more of them. The distribution center allows a manufacturer to bring together all product lines in one place. Its purpose is to minimize storage and to ease the flow of goods from manufacturers to retailers rather than build up extensive inventories. It reduces costs by speeding up product turnover. Very large corporations will have several distribution centers regionally or internationally based. 

Merchandising: Wholesalers

   The word middlemen is often used to describe wholesalers, because they operate between the manufacturer and the retailer. They normally do not deal directly with the final customer, though there are some notable exceptions. The most traditional role of wholesalers has been to purchase products from the producer and sell them at a markup to the retailer, who then sells them at a markup to the consumer. This simple definition is almost deceptive because there are so many kinds of wholesalers. 

   The three basic kinds of middlemen are merchant wholesalers, manufacturers' sales branches, and agent middlemen. Merchant wholesalers and agent middlemen can be divided into several subgroups. 

Merchant wholesalers actually own the products they sell. They pay the producers for the goods and take ownership of them, thus relieving the manufacturer of any further responsibility in the selling procedure. The two main categories of merchant wholesalers are full service and limited service. Full-service wholesalers are generally more significant in terms of sales volume. They perform a number of services for their customers, the retailers. They stock inventories, operate warehouses, supply credit, make deliveries, and employ salesmen to help customers. General-merchandise wholesalers carry a wide range of products. Single-line wholesalers carry a limited line of goods, such as coffee, tea, or cigarettes. Specialty wholesalers carry a narrow range of products, such as Mexican foods or exercise equipment. 

   Limited-service wholesalers handle a variety of specialties. They differ from full-service wholesalers in that they perform fewer functions for their customers. For example, they might not arrange credit or make deliveries. Limited-service wholesalers include cash-and-carry wholesalers, rack jobbers, drop shippers, truck wholesalers, and mail-order wholesalers. 

   Cash-and-carry wholesalers normally deal with small retail establishments that cannot afford to make large purchases from general-service wholesalers. They deliver the products, and the retailer must pay cash for them. 

   Rack jobbers deal in nonfood items that are sold in grocery stores. The merchandise is often displayed on wire racks in the stores. Drop shippers arrange for the shipment of goods directly from the manufacturer to the retailer, without ever handling the goods themselves. Truck wholesalers sell and deliver directly from their vehicles, often for cash. Mail-order wholesalers are similar to their retailing counterparts. They sell goods out of catalogs to retailers and industrial customers. 

Manufacturers' sales branches are company-owned business operations located away from the corporate headquarters or its manufacturing units. The Tandy Corporation, for example, operates Radio Shack outlets for its computers and other products around the world. IBM has similar establishments. These outlets display products and arrange for financing and service. Their role as middlemen is obscured by the fact that they deal directly with final consumers. 

Agent middlemen, in contrast to merchant wholesalers, do not purchase the goods they sell. Their purpose is to bring together buyers and sellers, and they make their money as a commission of the sale price. Many agents specialize in specific kinds of products. Paterno Imports, for example, is a wholesaler for imported wine and liquors. The chief kinds of agent middlemen are brokers, auction houses, commission merchants, sales agents, manufacturers' agents, and import-export agents. 

   Probably the most familiar type of broker is the real-estate agent, whose job is to bring together the seller of a house or other building with a buyer. There are also food brokers who specialize in grocery products. 

   Auction houses provide places for sellers and buyers to come together. Sotheby's and Christie's, based in London, are two well-known auction houses for the arts. Auctions are also held for other goods, such as tobacco, used cars, and livestock. 

   Commission merchants are middlemen in the most obvious sense. They take goods shipped to them by sellers and arrange for sale. These agents are most often used for agricultural products. Sales agents are marketing experts who take over the marketing tasks from manufacturers. They sell all of a company's output and generally have a say in setting prices. They also send back marketing information to manufacturers and thus may play a role in product development. 

   Manufacturers' agents, in spite of their title, are really independent (in contrast to a manufacturer's representative). They work on a commission basis for several, usually noncompeting, companies. The agent is primarily a salesperson and already has a territory and sales contacts. Import-export houses represent manufacturers whose companies are separated geographically from the point of sales. They are basically brokers who simplify the wholesaling and retailing process for foreign or domestic companies, depending on which way the trade is flowing. 

Merchandising: Retail Operations

   Retailing, selling to the final consumer, is the aspect of marketing with which most people are familiar. It encompasses every type of final selling, from the door-to-door Avon lady to department-store chains. It is the goal toward which all other aspects of marketing are directed. 

   Most consumer goods are sold in stores, and the word store is related to storage: a place where products are gathered under one roof. Other selling takes place away from stores--such retailing as telephone solicitation and direct-mail selling. 

Types of stores. In the 19th century, general stores were found throughout the United States in rural areas, and some continue to exist today. They served farmers in the surrounding area as well as the local community by selling a wide range of goods, including food, clothing, housewares, and farm equipment. Because it was the one place for people to buy their necessities, the store also served as a meeting place. 

   After the American Civil War, single-line or limited-line stores became common in cities and often in small towns as well. These stores stock either a single kind of merchandise or a small variety. Bakeries and meat markets, for example, are single-line stores. Some single-line stores are specialty stores, such as health-food stores, bookstores, sporting goods stores, automobile dealerships, and clothing stores. A fresh-produce market, stocking fresh meats, vegetables, fruits, and dairy products, is a limited-line store. A convenience store, such as the Southland Corporation's 7-Eleven Food Stores or the neighborhood family-owned shop, is a limited-line food store. The disadvantage of these stores is the limited number of products they can carry, and many have been forced out of business by the larger supermarkets. 

   If a large collection of specialty and limited-line stores is brought together into one building under a single ownership, the result is a department store. These are large, multistoried buildings in which customers may find nearly every product on the market today. There are full lines of clothing, shoes, appliances, jewelry, sporting goods, books, cosmetics, furniture, art works, china, silverware, selected food products, and much more. 

   Establishments similar to modern department stores existed in Japan as early as the 17th century. They appeared in the United States when central business districts developed in large cities. In the 1920s central-city department stores began establishing branches in suburbs. Today most branches are located in shopping malls. Some department stores, such as Sears, Montgomery Ward and Company, and J.C. Penney Company, have become international chains, though none of the three originated as department stores. (Sears and Montgomery Ward began as mail-order houses, and J.C. Penney was a dry-goods store.) 

   Mass merchandisers such as Kmart, Target, Wal-Mart, and Woolco are similar to department stores in arrangement of goods and comparable to the old "five-and-dime" stores such as F.W. Woolworth Company and S.S. Kresge. They are normally chain enterprises. They are not usually so large, however, and they are self-service stores with checkout counters similar to grocery supermarkets. They offer a low markup price and depend on high turnovers of goods for their profits. 

   The supermarket is a mass merchandiser of food and related products. Some supermarkets incorporate departments for drugs, hardware, appliances, liquor, film development, and other products as well. Supermarkets are self-service stores with checkout counters. Their customers are people who come once a week or less and stock up on many dollars worth of goods. As stores have become more competitive, supermarkets are incorporating specialty shops, such as small bakeries and delicatessens, into their stores. A variation on the supermarket is the box store, which sells products directly out of cartons. By reducing overhead, a box store can keep its prices lower than those of regular supermarkets. 

   Discount houses, often specializing in appliances and electronics, emerged after World War II in the United States. They carry large inventories and sell their products at lower prices than those asked by other retail outlets. Some are called closed-door discount houses because they sell only to certain groups, such as labor-union members or government employees. The success of discount houses has depended on the nullification of so-called fair-trade laws, which once required retailers to sell at prices set by manufacturers. Outlet stores, such as factory outlets, department store outlets, and catalog outlets, sell merchandise at prices that are 20 to 60 percent lower than goods at regular retail stores. 

Nonstore selling. There are at least five means of selling without the need for stores: catalog sales, direct mail, door-to-door selling, the use of vending machines, and telemarketing. Mail-order buying from catalogs is still a popular way to shop. Spiegel Incorporated, in the United States, does most of its business as a mail-order house, though it does have some small retail outlets. 

   Sears, Montgomery Ward, and J.C. Penney still do a large mail-order business. Many department stores also offer catalogs to their customers. Catalog showroom retailers, such as Service Merchandise, are similar, but they have the merchandise displayed in large retail outlets. 

   Direct-mail selling is similar to catalog retailing. To purchase goods from a catalog, a buyer may go to the retailer to place an order. In direct-mail selling the approach to the customer is by mail, and orders are placed either by mail or by telephone. The customer may be mailed a catalog, or the seller may just send a few brochures offering specific items. The customer mails a response card or, to save time, may telephone. Many firms, including the bank-card systems and oil companies, regularly send direct-mail solicitations to their customers. 

   Door-to-door selling by the Fuller Brush Company, encyclopedia salespeople, and cosmetics salespersons is less common than it once was. Party-plan selling is similar to door-to-door retailing. A homeowner invites friends to listen to a sales pitch, merchandise is displayed, and orders are taken. This type of selling is done by such companies as Tupperware, Mary Kay Cosmetics, and Shaklee vitamins. 

   Vending machines have been in use in Europe since the mid-19th century to sell candy and tobacco products. Their practical use in the United States began in 1888, when coin-activated machines were used to expand the sales of chewing gum. (See also Vending Machine.) 

   Refrigeration was added to vending machines in the 1930s in order to sell ice cream and soft drinks. Vending-machine operations are usually done on sites owned by other businesses. They are especially common in schools and workplaces as purveyors of food, coffee, and soft drinks. 

   Telemarketing literally means "selling from a distance." It includes telephone solicitation and buying by means of television and computers. Telephone solicitation is frequently done to offer credit cards, ask for newspaper subscriptions, and to sell vacation or retirement property. 

   Instead of waiting to be called by telemarketers, customers can also call special 900 numbers to order a wide variety of goods and services. These include checking sports scores, stock prices, and weather forecasts; phoning in one's opinion on public opinion polls; and ordering merchandise. These numbers are sometimes controversial because some companies take unfair advantage of consumers, and because the numbers are accessible to anyone who can dial a telephone, including the very young for whom some of the "talk" services offered are inappropriate. 

   Home shopping by means of television and computers is another development in marketing. Television viewers can see goods they may want to purchase and order them by telephone. Purchases are made by credit card. By the use of a modem a computer can be put in contact, through the telephone, with any number of businesses. 

   The Comp-U-Card system in the United States is a computerized mail-order service (named Telestore) through which subscribers can order merchandise by calling a toll-free number. (See also Advertising; Cooperatives; Credit; Economics; Franchise.) ^[1]

 

Hashim Ibrahim Filali

  1.    Comdata Observe (1-2), 1987H, 1988G  -  1408H, 1409H

  2.    Comdata Coverage (1), 1988G - 1408H,1409H

  3.    Comdata Events (Information System), 1988G, 1989G - 1408H, 1409H 1410H

  4.    Catalogue 1996G by I.S. SDM; 1996g  (Charts)

  5.     Education Activity and View Coverage; 1996g  (Charts)

  6.     Regular Project..; 1996g   (Charts)

  7.     Challenge Task I (Business General Basics);  1996g    (Charts)

  8.     Challenge Task II (Understanding Data Processing);  1996g   (Charts)

  9.     Normal View and Check Coverage; 1996g   (Charts)

10.   Introduction to Information Technology ( Real Life Business); 1996g

11.   Business Concept and View Points  (Part  I); 1996g

12.   Business Concept and View Points  (Part  II); 1996g

13.   Marketing Strategy for Success; 1996g

14.   Basic Rules For Information Management; 1996g

15.   Organization Management and Administration Coverage; 1996g                            (CT iii)

16.   An Entrance to Next Century; 1996g                                                        (CT vi)

17.   Survival in Business by an Easy Procedures;  1996g                                              (CT x)

18.   Monitoring Project Planning and Facilities Update;  1996g                         (CT xx)

19.   Project’s Activities and Related Tasks;  1996g                             

20.   Join the Competition and Win the Challenge;  1996g                                             (CT xxv)

21.   Directions of Management and Processing;  1996g                                                (CT xxx)

22.   Productiveties Improvement and Getting Update;  1996g                                       (CT xxxv)

23.   Culture Effect in Marketing Business;  1996g                                             (CT xxxx)

24.   Efficient Methods of Management Administration;  1997g                          (CT xxxxx)

25.   Creating Procedures to Get Best Project Processing;  1997g                                 (CT 100)

26.    Meet the Changing Demands in the Market;  1997g  (Acceptance Package to the Customer) (CT 200)  

27.   Windows to the business in the Market;  1997g                                         (CT 222)

28.    Sort of Existing Business - 0X   1997g    (Chart)                                      (CT 999)

29.   Access All the Authorized Channels by an Ease

30.   A little Moment in Management (Information Technology Systems)  1997G

31.    Major and Minor Activities Coverage   1997G                                         (CT 2000)

32.   Way of Organizing the work (Information Technology Systems)  1997G 

33.    Dealing Right to get your Rights (I.T.) Industrial Engineering)   1998G

34.    Simple Ways to Project Activities  1998G                       

35.    Packaging Systems and Quality Packing (I.T. Industrial Engineering) 1998G

36.    Academic and Non Academic Business (Industrial Engineering)  1998G

37.     SDM-IE  Newsletters –01-   1998G-1999G